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Why Office Jerks Get Ahead

Think your boss is a psychopath? You may be right. New research finds that employees who displayed certain Dark Triad traits – psychopathy, narcissism, and Machiavellianism – are more likely to climb to the top of the corporate ladder than those who don’t show the traits.

University of Bern psychological scientists Daniel Spurk, Anita Keller, and Andreas Hirschi conducted the new study, concluding that high scores on some of these malignant traits were linked to better career prospects, including more leadership positions and higher salaries.

Even though the Dark Triad traits are associated with negative behaviors (e.g., lying, cheating, recklessness, manipulation) that can cost businesses billions, research also suggests that ruthless corporate climbers with the traits can also be charming, ambitious, and excellent negotiators.

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The researchers hypothesized that some of these sinister traits may help people succeed, while other traits may hinder career advancement. For example, people with high scores of Machiavellianism tend to crave power, control, and status — hence, they tend to actively pursue leadership positions and prestige. On the other hand, nobody likes working with a selfish jerk — Psychopaths often have difficulty working with other people, and are prone to impulsivity.

Spurk and colleagues collected surveys from a large sample of nearly 800 working German adults between the ages of 25 and 34.

Each of the participants was given a frequently used measure for Dark Triad traits known as the “Dirty Dozen” measure. The survey asked participants to rate the extent to which they agreed with statement such as ‘‘I tend to want others to pay attention to me’’ (for narcissism), ‘‘I tend to lack remorse’’ (for psychopathy), and ‘‘I tend to manipulate others to get my way’’ (for Machiavellianism).

Respondents then provided their monthly salary before taxes and leadership position within their organization, and completed a short self-report survey on their career satisfaction. In their analyses, the researchers also took various other factors that could influence career success, like gender, job tenure, working hours, and occupational education, into account.

Sure enough, the results suggest that certain dark traits really do help people get ahead.

“Whether bad guys get ahead or fall behind seems to depend on the type of dark trait,” the researchers write in the journal Social Psychological and Personality Science. “After controlling for other relevant variables (i.e., gender, age, job tenure, organization size, education, and work hours), narcissism was positively related to salary, Machiavellianism was positively related to leadership position and career satisfaction.”

The findings indicated that people who scored high on psychopathy, on the other hand, didn’t fare as well. The researchers found a negative association between psychopathy and successful career outcomes.

As psychological scientists Robert Hare and Paul Babiak explain in their book on psychopathy in the workplace, Snakes in Suits: When Psychopaths Go to Work, “The most debilitating characteristic of even the most well-behaved psychopath is the inability to form a workable team.”

Though psychopaths may be charismatic, smart, and talented, this inability to play well with others often prevents them from obtaining high levels of career success.

Interestingly, a comprehensive review on successful psychopaths recently conducted by Emory University psychological scientists Scott Lilienfeld, Ashley Watts, and Sarah Smith found that some psychopaths may possess distinctive traits that make them more likely to become successful leaders. While the bulk of psychopathy research has focused on prison populations, Lilienfeld and colleagues looked at research on people with psychopathic traits who also obtained professional success. These “successful psychopaths” tended to have higher scores on assertiveness, excitement-seeking, and conscientiousness compared to unsuccessful psychopaths.

Additional research on the mixed outcomes of the Dark Triad may help explain why so many organizations end up with a destructive Tony Soprano or Frank Underwood at the top.

References

Lilienfeld, S. O., Watts, A. L., & Smith, S. F. (2015). Successful Psychopathy A Scientific Status Report. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24(4), 298-303. doi: 10.1177/0963721415580297

Spurk, D., Keller, A. C., & Hirschi, A. (2015). Do Bad Guys Get Ahead or Fall Behind? Relationships of the Dark Triad of Personality With Objective and Subjective Career Success. Social Psychological and Personality Science. doi: 10.1177/1948550615609735

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Feeling stressed? Try doing something nice for someone else.

Feeling seasonal stress? Try doing a small favor for someone else. A study in Clinical Psychological Science found that

prosocial behavior moderated the effects of stress on positive affect, negative affect, and overall mental health. Findings suggest that affiliative behavior may be an important component of coping with stress and indicate that engaging in prosocial behavior might be an effective strategy for reducing the impact of stress on emotional functioning.

» Read the summary on PsyBlog: A Surprising Way To Cope With Everyday Stress

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Make your decision. Seek advice. Now make a better decision.

We all need some advice sometimes, from getting help on a new project at work to making decisions about how to save for retirement. The problem is, we’re not always so good about taking other people’s advice.

“A large literature shows that people do not take advice particularly well, often overweighting their own opinions or ignoring the advice that they receive,” according to Duke University psychological scientist Christina Rader.
In a recent study, Rader and colleagues Jack Soll and Richard Larrick investigated how timing affects people’s willingness to follow outside advice. Are we more likely to follow advice before or after we’ve already had the chance to make our own decision?
To find out, the researchers ran a series of experiments asking participants to guess the age of a person in a photograph either before or after receiving advice on the person’s real age from an outside source.
In one online survey, 605 participants were told that they would receive a small cash bonus if they could guess the person’s age within 3 years of the correct answer. Half of the participants received advice before ever even seeing the photo. Participants in the other group were shown the photo and prompted to come up with a guess before seeing any advice. They then had the opportunity to revise their answer after seeing the outside suggestion.
Both groups were told that the advice was an answer from another survey taker. However, suggested number both groups received was the median age based on guesses from a separate pool of participants.

The results showed that people’s confidence in the advice was influenced by the timing of when they received it. Those who received the advice first were less confident in that advice than participants who made a guess before receiving information from the outside source.
The researchers called this a push-away effect. When the advice came first, people used it as an anchoring point for determining their own guess, but ultimately they ended up “pushing away” from the advice with either a slightly higher or lower guess.
On the other hand, making a decision before receiving advice led to a different response. If the guess closely matched the advice, people felt confident and made final guesses that followed the advice. When the advice was very different than the initial guess, people were less confident in the advice and tended to ignore it.
But, does the ordering of advice influence the accuracy of people’s decisions? In another experiment, an online panel of 1,232 participants followed a similar procedure. However, in this experiment, not all participants received the same advice. After all, in the real world, not all advice is good.
Some groups received bad advice in the form of the highest or lowest average age estimates from another pool of guessers. For example, they might be advised that a 40 year old man was actually 20 or 60.
This bad advice had a significant effect on the advice-first group. They tended to anchor their guesses to the first number they saw, even when it was improbably high or low—ultimately harming their accuracy. Even when the advice was good, their accuracy was hurt by the push-away effect.

Ultimately, those who came to a decision independently before getting advice were the more accurate group. Not only were they less influenced by the bad advice, but they also didn’t show the “push-back” response to the middle-of-the road “good” advice.
Based on these results, the researchers recommend that people facing a decision seek advice after they’ve come to their own initial conclusion.
However, the results also showed that both kinds of advice led to better decisions than no advice at all.
“Overall, there is one very clear prescription that emerges from this study—both advice sequences are superior to not getting advice at all,” they conclude in the journal Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes.
Reference
Rader, C. A., Soll, J. B., & Larrick, R. P. (2015). Pushing away from representative advice: Advice taking, anchoring, and adjustment. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 130, 26-43. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2015.05.004
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What kind of music makes people want to buy books?

Seriously, someone should get on that. In the meantime, we know that Indian music makes you more likely to order Indian food, and classical music encourages you to spend more for perfume.

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Background music has a surprisingly strong influence on what products consumers buy and how much they’re willing to pay for them, according to a new study from psychological scientists Adrian North and Lorraine Sheridan of Curtin University and Charles Areni of Macquarie University.

North and colleagues hypothesized that specific songs or musical genres could prime congruent concepts in a person’s memory, ultimately shifting people’s preferences and buying behavior. Hearing Edith Piaf in the grocery store may then be just the thing to nudge a buyer to choose a French wine over an Italian or South African one.

“Playing German music might make consumers think of beer and bratwurst, whereas French music might evoke images of wine and the Eiffel Tower,” the researchers explain.

In one experiment, 120 Scottish college students were assigned to one of four rooms in a lab. Each of the four rooms featured one of three types of music—American (The Beach Boys), Chinese (The Peking Brothers), Indian (Sunidhi Chauhan)—on a continuous loop. The fourth room had no music. Participants were then given a menu featuring 30 different entrees representative of the cuisine of China, India, and the United States (e.g. hamburger, dim sum, chicken tikka masala).

After perusing the menu for a few minutes, the students were asked to recall and list as many of the menu items as they could before choosing one item to hypothetically order.

Sure enough, a room’s atmospheric music not only affected what menu item participants ordered, but also which words participants remembered. People were more likely to select menu items that corresponded to the music they heard. For example, those who listened to the Beach Boys were more likely to order typically American fare such as hamburgers and hotdogs.

A second experiment looked at how different styles of music could influence the perceived cash value of an item.

“Several studies have indicated that the upmarket stereotype of classical music is associated with customers being prepared to pay more for the same products than when other musical styles or no music are played,” writes North and colleagues.

Because of the so-called “upmarket” connotations of classical music, the researchers expected that classical music would lead people to pay more for “social identity” products affiliated with sophistication and a high-rolling lifestyle (i.e. cologne, gold stud earrings). They hypothesized that country music, in contrast, would lead to participants to pay more for utilitarian products (i.e. toothbrush, disposable ball point pen).

Groups of 180 Scottish college students heard either classical music, country music, or no music while viewing slides of 10 social identity products and also 10 utilitarian products. After each slide, participants wrote down the top price they would be willing to pay for each of the 20 products.

Those listening to country music were prepared to pay more for utilitarian products than the participants in the other two groups, while those listening to classical were willing to spend more on social identity products than the other participants.

“Music incongruent with product image can lead to a reduction in the maximum prices consumers are prepared to pay,” the researchers write in the Journal of Retailing.

A final study revealed that participants who were first primed with luxury images (e.g., royal palaces, race horses) while listening to classical music were willing to pay more for social identity products than non-primed participants.

Moreover, this effect was particularly strong when students were under time pressure to make pricing decisions. After being primed, students who only had 5 seconds to decide were willing to pay more than students who had a whole minute to decide on a price. This suggests that in real world conditions, consumers are more susceptible to these subtle cues when they’re more mentally overloaded.

While background music may not convince buyers to abandon their typical preferences, this study suggests that a little attention to detail when selecting music could help retailers make a few more sales.

“A retailer with a narrow mix of wines from France might play stereotypically French music, which would elicit congruent concepts in the minds of shoppers and, potentially generate incremental sales relative to playing irrelevant or incongruent music,” the researchers conclude.

Reference

North, A. C., Sheridan, L. P., & Areni, C. S. (2015). Music Congruity Effects on Product Memory, Perception, and Choice. Journal of Retailing. doi:10.1016/j.jretai.2015.06.001

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Want to Excel at Work? Take a Vacation

The rejuvenating effects of a vacation last four weeks. The solution is clear: A vacation every four weeks.

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The science is clear: Taking a break is a key part of getting ahead at work. Just as top athletes need to schedule recovery breaks in their training, employees need time to mentally recharge in order to stay sharp and engaged on the job.

In an article published in Current Directions in Psychological Science, Sabine Sonnentag of the University of Mannheim comprehensively reviewed the current research on recovering from work. Her analysis of dozens of studies shows that taking a break from work—both mentally and physically—is essential to maintaining top performance.

“Research in organizational psychology and related fields has identified recovery from work as an important mechanism that explains how employees can stay energetic, engaged, and healthy, even when facing high job demands,” Sonnentag writes.

Previous research has shown that vacation time is essential for reducing stress and even maintaining cardiovascular health. However, as many people know all too well, the relaxing effects of a vacation don’t last.

Working with Jana Kühnel of the University of Ulm, Sonnentag conducted a study to find out just how long the positive effects of a vacation last once we return to the daily grind. The researchers surveyed 131 teachers before and after a two week break from school.

First, they had the teachers complete a measure of exhaustion—how emotionally drained and burned out they felt the day before heading out for vacation. The teachers then completed weekly surveys on how engaged they were with their work, relaxed, and stressed they felt four weeks after returning from vacation.

As predicted, the results indicated that vacationing had a beneficial effect. Not only did the teachers report feeling less tired and emotionally burned out, they also reported feeling more engaged and positive about their work.

But, these benefits were fairly short-lived, particularly for those teachers who came back to especially difficult students and heavy workloads. Within four weeks, the vacation’s positive benefits had faded and teachers were back to their initial levels of stress and emotional exhaustion.

Because the recharging effects of a vacation seem to dissipate fairly quickly, it’s important to try to make time to recharge on a regular basis—particularly when work is very demanding.

“Organizations should take care to see that individuals have sufficient recovery time at their disposal, for example, by implementing regulations that restrict skipping vacation or exchanging days of one’s vacation for financial rewards because vacation can serve as a powerful instrument to lessen emotional exhaustion and to foster work engagement,” Kühnel and Sonnentag conclude in the Journal of Organizational Behavior.

Not only are vacations necessary for recharging our mental batteries, there’s also mounting evidence that spending money on experiences tend to bring us more enduring pleasure compared to splurging on material goods.

New research published in Psychological Science shows you may be happier in the long run for taking a cruise to the Bahamas rather than working overtime to pay for a bigger flat screen TV.

In one study, psychological scientists Amit Kumar and Thomas Gilovich of Cornell University and Matthew Killingsworth of University of California, San Francisco tracked moment-to-moment data from 2,266 adults as part of a large-scale experience-sampling project. Participants received notifications from the researchers on their iPhones at random times throughout the day.

Comparing data from individual participants across different times, Gilovich and colleagues found that people were happier at times when they were thinking about a future experiential purchase, like a ski trip, than they were at times when they weren’t thinking about a purchase at all. There was no relative increase or decrease in happiness when people were thinking about a future material purchase.

“Our research is also important to society because it suggests that overall well-being can be advanced by providing an infrastructure that affords experiences — such as parks, trails, beaches — as much as it does material consumption,” says Gilovich.

References

Kühnel, J., & Sonnentag, S. (2011). How long do you benefit from vacation? A closer look at the fade‐out of vacation effects. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32(1), 125-143. doi: 10.1002/job.699

Kumar, A., Killingsworth, M. A., & Gilovich, T. (2014). Waiting for Merlot anticipatory consumption of experiential and material purchases. Psychological Science, 25(10). 1924-1931. doi: 10.1177/0956797614546556

Sonnentag, S., & Fritz, C. (2015). Recovery from job stress: The stressor‐detachment model as an integrative framework. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 36(S1), S72-S103. doi: 10.1002/job.1924

Sonnentag, S. (2012). Psychological Detachment From Work During Leisure Time The Benefits of Mentally Disengaging From Work. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(2), 114-118. doi: 10.1177/0963721411434979

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The Key to Creativity May be in Imagining the Details

Remembering specific details can spark creativity. Good advice for authors?

Beyond recruiting staff that has the right skills, qualifications, and education for the job, organizations are increasingly looking for ways to boost another key component of success—creativity.

PAFF_072915_DetailsCreativityMemory_newsfeature In a study recently published in Psychological Science, a trio of Harvard University researchers—Kevin Madore, Donna Rose Addis, and Daniel Schacter—found an unusual link between memory and creative problem-solving. The study showed that reminiscing about the specific details of an experience, tapping into what is known as episodic memory, helped spark “divergent thinking,” or the ability to come up with many creative solutions for a problem.

“Episodic memory supports ‘mental time travel’ into the future as well as the past, and indeed, numerous recent studies have provided evidence that episodic memory contributes importantly to imagining or simulating possible future experiences,” the researchers write.

Essentially, prompting people to imagine the specific details of a past event seems to also prime them to more vividly imagine the details necessary for coming up with multiple creative solutions to a problem.

To test this theory, the researchers ran two small experiments in which groups of volunteers were prompted to come up with creative ideas after reminiscing about a recent experience.

In the first experiment, a group of 23 volunteers watched a video of a man and woman performing a series of activities. Afterwards, half of the group answered a series of general questions about the video, including their impressions and opinions overall, and how they would describe the setting, people, and actions from the video.

The other group of participants were asked a series of questions that prompted them to recall specific details from the video. The researchers based these questions off of the Cognitive Interview, a protocol used to boost the number of accurate details that eyewitnesses recall about an event by visualizing the specific details of the setting, people, and actions they had seen.

Afterwards, both groups completed assessments measuring creative thought and imagination. To test for divergent thinking, the volunteers were rated on their ability to come up with as many creative and unusual uses for everyday objects as possible (e.g. newspapers and eyeglasses).

Participants who had recalled specific details about the movie had significantly higher scores on the divergent thinking task than those who answered general questions.

A second experiment looked at whether prompting episodic memories could also extend to coming up with the single best solution to a problem—a component of creativity called “convergent thinking.”

Another group of 23 young adults completed the series of questions and creativity measures after viewing the same video. This time, participants had to solve a series of convergent thinking puzzles in addition to the divergent thinking task. In one convergent thinking puzzle, for example, participants might be shown the word trio “eight-skate-stick” and would be asked to come up with the word that best links the words in the trio (i.e., “figure”).

Again, the results showed that participants who recalled episodic details received a creativity boost on their divergent thinking performance. However, the episodic memory prompt did not lead to a bump in performance on the convergent thinking task.

The researchers suspect that imagining specific details may affect a cognitive process tapped by both remembering and imaging. Focusing on the details of an experience “may affect performance on subsequent memory, imagination, and divergent-thinking tasks because they all involve creating mental scenarios that contain details like those emphasized during the induction.”

Reference

Madore, K. P., Addis, D. R., & Schacter, D. L. (2015). Creativity and Memory Effects of an Episodic-Specificity Induction on Divergent Thinking. Psychological Science. doi: 10.1177/0956797615591863

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A ‘Learning’ Attitude Helps Boost Job Search Success

PAFF_060315_LearningAttitudeSuccess_newsfeature For most jobseekers, the job hunt is no picnic — disappointment, rejection, and desperation seem to have become hallmarks of the typical job search. It’s common to hear stories of job hunters who have submitted hundreds of applications before getting a single interview.

No one will argue that looking for a new job isn’t stressful, but new research finds that the way people manage and channel this stress could have a big impact on their ultimate success.

Psychological scientists Serge da Motta Veiga from Lehigh University and Daniel Turban of the University of Missouri found that people who viewed their job hunt as an opportunity to learn may increase their odds of successfully landing a job.

The researchers spent 3 months tracking a group of 120 college seniors just getting ready to hit the job market for the first time. While on the search for full-time employment, students completed surveys every other week assessing their levels of stress, mood, and job search activities.

While we may tend to think of stress as bad thing, that’s not always the case. Given the right circumstances, a moderate amount of stress can actually help motivate people to accomplish their goals. The researchers hypothesized that an attitude focused on learning—known as a learning goal orientation (LGO)—would help jobseekers deal with rejection and stress in ways that actually helped them accomplish their goals.

While the students high in LGO were dealing with the same kind of stress as students low in LGO, they showed big differences in how they responded to stress and rejection. As expected, regardless of whether their job search was stressful and frustrating or going well, students high in LGO tended to maintain a productive job search strategy.

People lower in LGO may see a lack of progress as a sign of personal failure, tempting them to give up trying altogether. In contrast, da Motta Veiga and Turban found that people high in LGO are more likely to react to disappointment by working harder and finding new ways to tackle problems, ultimately helping them maintain the motivation necessary to succeed.

“Because individuals with higher learning goal orientation see ability as something that can be developed, they are likely to respond to adverse events with increased effort following perceived failure,” da Motta Veiga and Turban write in the journal Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes.

If they felt like the job search was going well, students low in LGO tended to slack off and decrease their job search efforts. Those with a high learning focus, on the other hand, maintained or even increased the intensity of their job search when they felt like things were going well.

This study did not track the students’ ultimate success in getting hired. However, previous research has demonstrated that the perseverance shown by individuals high in LGO can result in real-world payoffs in the job market.

Another study looking at 245 unemployed adult job seekers led by Gera Noordzij of Erasmus University Rotterdam found that not only did high learning orientation help people land a job, it was also something that could be effectively taught.

One group of unemployed adults received training in developing a learning-goal orientation, while another group received a standard employment training.

Rather than viewing rejection as an insurmountable problem, LGO training helped jobseekers see it as something that they could successfully learn from. This, in turn, led them to better manage stress and resulted in higher rates of reemployment compared to the comparison group.

“Job seekers, who think they can learn from failure and who are more aware of different strategies, were found to be more likely to plan job-search activities, resulting in higher probabilities to find a job,” they conclude in the journal Personnel Psychology.

Reference

da Motta Veiga, S. P., & Turban, D. B. (2014). Are affect and perceived stress detrimental or beneficial to job seekers? The role of learning goal orientation in job search self-regulation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 125(2), 193-203. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2014.09.007

Noordzij, G., Hooft, E. A., Mierlo, H., Dam, A., & Born, M. P. (2013). The Effects of a Learning‐Goal Orientation Training on Self‐Regulation: A Field Experiment Among Unemployed Job Seekers. Personnel Psychology, 66(3), 723-755. doi: 10.1111/peps.12011

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A ‘Learning’ Attitude Helps Boost Job Search Success

No one will argue that looking for a new job isn’t stressful, but new research finds that the way people manage and channel this stress could have a big impact on their ultimate success.

One group of unemployed adults received training in developing a learning-goal orientation, while another group received a standard employment training.

Reference

from Association for Psychological Science » Minds for Business http://bit.ly/1QqhcG8

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